Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention

Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention (아시아태평양암예방학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Breast Cancer in Pakistan - a Critical Appraisal of the Situation Regarding Female Health and Where the Nation Stands?

  • Published : 2016.07.01
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignancy of women worldwide. In the past it was considered as disease of older middle aged women, but the incidence of BC in young females is growing in recent years concordant with studies in Pakistan. In this paper, we reviewed the mutant functions of tumor suppressor genes (BRCA1, BRCA2, p53, ATM and PTEN), epigenetic transformation and involvement of estrogen receptors in development of breast cancer. We further reviewed the current situation of BC in Pakistan that depicts a higher incidence in young females. According to SKMCH and RC data, age group 45-49 years is more prone to BC with high rate of incidence 45.42%. A few studies explored the high expression of ER, PR and HER-2/neu in Pakistani females. Moreover, presence of BRCA1 (c.1961dupA) mutation in Pakistani shows concordance with data in different areas of world. But we are unable to find an authentic study that can explore epigenetic based transformation of breast tumors in Pakistan. This area of research needs more attention to explore the complete picture of BC in Pakistan.

Keywords

References

  1. (2004 Update. 2008). The Global Burden of Disease. World Health Organization.
  2. (2014). Report based on cancer cases registered at SKMCH & RC from Dec. 1994-Dec. 2014.
  3. Abdel-Hafiz HA, Horwitz KB (2015). Role of epigenetic modifications in luminal breast cancer. Epigenomics, 1-16.
  4. Abuidhail J, Al-Modallal H, Yousif R, et al (2014). Exclusive breast feeding (EBF) in Jordan: prevalence, duration, practices, and barriers. Midwifery, 30, 331-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2013.01.005
  5. Afridi P, Ahmed S (2012). Profile of breast cancer patients. J Surg Pakistan, 17.
  6. Allred DC Ductal carcinoma in situ: terminology, classification, and natural history. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr, 2010, 134-8.
  7. Alvarez C, Tapia T, Cornejo V, et al (2013). Silencing of tumor suppressor genes RASSF1A, SLIT2, and WIF1 by promoter hypermethylation in hereditary breast cancer. Mol Carcinog, 52, 475-87. https://doi.org/10.1002/mc.21881
  8. American Cancer Society A (2009-2010). American Cancer Society. Breast Cancer Facts & Figures 2009-2010. .
  9. Anzick SL, Kononen J, Walker RL, et al (1997). AIB1, a steroid receptor coactivator amplified in breast and ovarian cancer. Sci, 277, 965-8. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.965
  10. Baloch S, Memon F, Gill RC, et al (2014). Early breast cancer in females presenting with palpable breast lumps. J Surg Pakistan, 19, 79-81.
  11. Baloch TA, Iqbal P (2006). Breast carcinoma in Karachi clinical and pathological features. Med Channel, 47-8.
  12. Bannister LH, Berry MM, Collins P, Dyson M, Dussek JE, (1995). Gray's anatomy.
  13. Berjia FL, Poulsen M, Nauta M (2014). Burden of diseases estimates associated to different red meat cooking practices. Food Chem Toxicol, 66, 237-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2014.01.045
  14. Bhurgri Y (2004). Karachi Cancer Registry Data--implications for the National Cancer Control Program of Pakistan. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 5, 77-82.
  15. Bhurgri Y, Bhurgri, A. Hasan, S,H. Usman, A. Faridi ,N. Khurshid, M. (2005). Cancer patterns in Karachi division (1998-1999). J Pak Med Assoc, 52, 244-6.
  16. Buchholz TA, Weil MM, Story MD, et al (1999). Tumor suppressor genes and breast cancer. Radiat Oncol Investig, 7, 55-65. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6823(1999)7:2<55::AID-ROI1>3.0.CO;2-#
  17. Chai YL, Cui J, Shao N, et al (1999). The second BRCT domain of BRCA1 proteins interacts with p53 and stimulates transcription from the p21WAF1/CIP1 promoter. Oncogene, 18, 263-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1202323
  18. Cortez CC, Jones PA (2008). Chromatin, cancer and drug therapies. Mutat Res, 647, 44-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2008.07.006
  19. Costa FF, Verbisck NV, Salim AC, et al (2004). Epigenetic silencing of the adhesion molecule ADAM23 is highly frequent in breast tumors. Oncogene, 23, 1481-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1207263
  20. Coughlin SS, Smith SA (2015). The insulin-like growth factor axis, adipokines, physical activity, and obesity in relation to breast cancer incidence and recurrence. Cancer Clin Oncol, 4, 24-31.
  21. Cunningham L (1977). The anatomy of the arteries and veins of the breast. J Surg Oncol, 9, 71-85. https://doi.org/10.1002/jso.2930090112
  22. Dagdemir A, Durif J, Ngollo M, Bignon YJ, Bernard-Gallon D (2013) Histone lysine trimethylation or acetylation can be modulated by phytoestrogen, estrogen or anti-HDAC in breast cancer cell lines. Epigenomics, 5, 51-63. https://doi.org/10.2217/epi.12.74
  23. Doutani H, Din US, Doutani J, et al (2012). Clinical and histopathological characteristics of breast cancer in people of baluchistan and adjoining territory of afghanistan. Maxwell Scientific Organization.
  24. Edge SB, Compton CC The American Joint Committee on Cancer: the 7th edition of the AJCC cancer staging manual and the future of TNM. Ann Surg Oncol, 17, 1471-4.
  25. Elsheikh SE, Green AR, Rakha EA, et al (2009). Global histone modifications in breast cancer correlate with tumor phenotypes, prognostic factors, and patient outcome. Cancer Res, 69, 3802-9. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-3907
  26. Esteller M, Corn PG, Baylin SB, et al (2001a). A gene hypermethylation profile of human cancer. Cancer Res, 61, 3225-9.
  27. Esteller M, Risques RA, Toyota M, et al (2001b). Promoter hypermethylation of the DNA repair gene O(6)-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase is associated with the presence of G:C to A:T transition mutations in p53 in human colorectal tumorigenesis. Cancer Res, 61, 4689-92.
  28. Fan S, Wang JA, Yuan RQ, et al (1998). BRCA1 as a potential human prostate tumor suppressor: modulation of proliferation, damage responses and expression of cell regulatory proteins. Oncogene, 16, 3069-82. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1202116
  29. Gayther SA, Ponder BA (1998). Clues to the function of the tumour susceptibility gene BRCA2. Dis Markers, 14, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/1998/613765
  30. Geddes DT (2007). Inside the lactating breast: the latest anatomy research. J Midwifery Womens Health, 52, 556-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmwh.2007.05.004
  31. GJ, SG (1995). The Genetic basis for the emergence and progression of breast cancer.Cancer of the Breast, Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Comp.
  32. Goel A, Kunnumakkara AB, Aggarwal BB (2008). Curcumin as "Curecumin": from kitchen to clinic. Biochem Pharmacol, 75, 787-809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2007.08.016
  33. Goldhirsch A, Wood WC, Coates AS, et al Strategies for subtypes--dealing with the diversity of breast cancer: highlights of the St. Gallen International Expert Consensus on the Primary Therapy of Early Breast Cancer 2011. Ann Oncol, 22, 1736-47.
  34. Greenblatt MS, Bennett WP, Hollstein M, et al (1994). Mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor gene: clues to cancer etiology and molecular pathogenesis. Cancer Res, 54, 4855-78.
  35. Guerrero-Preston R, Hadar T, Ostrow KL, et al (2014). Differential promoter methylation of kinesin family member 1a in plasma is associated with breast cancer and DNA repair capacity. Oncol Rep, 32, 505-12. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2014.3262
  36. Han LL, Hou L, Zhou MJ, et al (2013). Aberrant NDRG1 methylation associated with its decreased expression and clinicopathological significance in breast cancer. J Biomed Sci, 20, 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/1423-0127-20-52
  37. Heldring N, Pike A, Andersson S, et al (2007). Estrogen receptors: how do they signal and what are their targets. Physiol Rev, 87, 905-31. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00026.2006
  38. Holm K, Hegardt C, Staaf J, et al (2010). Molecular subtypes of breast cancer are associated with characteristic DNA methylation patterns. Breast Cancer Res, 12, 36.
  39. Jaenisch R, Bird A (2003). Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. Nat Genet, 33, 245-54. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1089
  40. Jamal S, Mamoon N, Moghal S, et al (2006). Carcinoma breast: a histopathological audit. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak, 16, 117-9.
  41. Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, et al (2011). Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin, 61, 69-90. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.20107
  42. Kajabova V, Smolkova B, Zmetakova I, et al (2013). RASSF1A Promoter Methylation Levels Positively Correlate with Estrogen Receptor Expression in Breast Cancer Patients. Transl Oncol, 6, 297-304. https://doi.org/10.1593/tlo.13244
  43. Kayani N, Bhurgri Y (2005). Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS) in Karachi. JPMA, 55.
  44. Kelsey JL, Gammon MD (1991). The epidemiology of breast cancer. CA Cancer J Clin, 41, 146-65. https://doi.org/10.3322/canjclin.41.3.146
  45. Khaliq SA, Naqvi SB, Fatima A (2013). Retrospective study of cancer types in different ethnic groups and genders at Karachi. Springerplus, 2, 118. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-118
  46. Khan SI, Aumsuwan P, Khan IA, et al (2012). Epigenetic events associated with breast cancer and their prevention by dietary components targeting the epigenome. Chem Res Toxicol, 25, 61-73. https://doi.org/10.1021/tx200378c
  47. Li J, Yen C, Liaw D, et al (1997). PTEN, a putative protein tyrosine phosphatase gene mutated in human brain, breast, and prostate cancer. Sci, 275, 1943-7. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5308.1943
  48. Macias H, Hinck L (2012) Mammary gland development. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Dev Biol, 1, 533-57. https://doi.org/10.1002/wdev.35
  49. Malik AM, Pathan R, Shaikh NA, et al (2010). Pattern of presentation and management of ca breast in developing countries. There is a lot to do. J Pak Med Assoc, 60, 718-21.
  50. Malik IA (2002). Clinico-pathological Features of Breast Cancer in Pakistan. J Pakistan Med Associat, 52.
  51. Malkin D, Li FP, Strong LC, et al (1990). Germ line p53 mutations in a familial syndrome of breast cancer, sarcomas, and other neoplasms. Science, 250, 1233-8. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1978757
  52. Mamoon N, Hassan U, Mushtaq S (2009a). Breast carcinoma in young women aged 30 or less in Northern Pakistan - the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology experience. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 10, 1079-82.
  53. Mamoon N, Sharif MA, Mushtaq S, et al (2009b). Breast carcinoma over three decades in northern Pakistan--are we getting anywhere? J Pak Med Assoc, 59, 835-8.
  54. Martin FL, Cole KJ, Weaver G, et al (2001). Genotoxicity of human breast milk from different countries. Mutagenesis, 16, 401-6. https://doi.org/10.1093/mutage/16.5.401
  55. Mauras N, Santen RJ, Colon-Otero G, et al (2015). Estrogens and their genotoxic metabolites are increased in obese prepubertal girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 20151495.
  56. Miki Y, Swensen J, Shattuck-Eidens D, et al (1994). A strong candidate for the breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1. Science, 266, 66-71. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7545954
  57. Moffat DF, Going JJ (1996). Three dimensional anatomy of complete duct systems in human breast: pathological and developmental implications. J Clin Pathol, 49, 48-52. https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.49.1.48
  58. Mousavi-Jarrrahi SH, Kasaeian A, Mansori K, et al Addressing the younger age at onset in breast cancer patients in Asia: an age-period-cohort analysis of fifty years of quality data from the international agency for research on cancer. ISRN Oncol, 2013, 429862.
  59. Naeem M, Khan N, Aman Z, et al (2008). Pattern of breast cancer: experience at Lady Reading Hospital, Peshawar. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad, 20, 22-5.
  60. Newton M, Newton NR (1948). The let-down reflex in human lactation. J Pediatr, 33, 698-704. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(48)80075-2
  61. Nilsson S, Makela S, Treuter E, et al (2001). Mechanisms of estrogen action. Physiol Rev, 81, 1535-65. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.2001.81.4.1535
  62. Oshiro MM, Kim CJ, Wozniak RJ, et al (2005). Epigenetic silencing of DSC3 is a common event in human breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res, 7, 669-80. https://doi.org/10.1186/bcr1273
  63. Perou CM, Sorlie T, Eisen MB, et al (2000). Molecular portraits of human breast tumours. Nature, 406, 747-52. https://doi.org/10.1038/35021093
  64. Phelan CM, Lancaster JM, Tonin P, et al (1996). Mutation analysis of the BRCA2 gene in 49 site-specific breast cancer families. Nat Genet, 13, 120-2. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng0596-120
  65. Porter P (2008). “Westernizing” women's risks? Breast cancer in lower-income countries. N Engl J Med, 358, 213-6. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp0708307
  66. Rashid MU, Muhammad N, Iqbal K, Yusuf HA, Hamann U (2015). BRCA1 genetic testing in a Pakistani breast-ovarian cancer family with multiple consanguineous marriages. Clinical Genetics, 88, 198-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/cge.12533
  67. Reigstad MM, Larsen IK, Myklebust TA, et al (2015). Risk of breast cancer following fertility treatment--a registry based cohort study of parous women in Norway. Int J Cancer, 136, 1140-8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.29069
  68. Reis-Filho JS, Pusztai L Gene expression profiling in breast cancer: classification, prognostication, and prediction. Lancet, 378, 1812-23.
  69. Schlenz I, Kuzbari R, Gruber H, et al (2000). The sensitivity of the nipple-areola complex: an anatomic study. Plast Reconstr Surg, 105, 905-9. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-200003000-00012
  70. Shao N, Chai YL, Shyam E, et al (1996). Induction of apoptosis by the tumor suppressor protein BRCA1. Oncogene, 13, 1-7.
  71. Sharif MA, Mamoon N, Mushtaq S, et al (2009). Morphological profile and association of HER-2/neu with prognostic markers in breast carcinoma in Northern Pakistan. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak, 19, 99-103.
  72. Siddiqui K, Rasool I (2001). Pattern of breast diseases: preliminary report of breast clinic. J College Physicians Surgeons Pakistan, 11, 497-500.
  73. Siddiqui MS, Kayani N, Gill MS, et al (2003). Breast diseases: a histopathological analysis of 3279 cases at a tertiary care center in Pakistan. J Pak Med Assoc, 53, 94-7.
  74. Siddiqui MS, Kayani N, Sulaiman S, et al (2000). Breast carcinoma in Pakistani females: a morphological study of 572 breast specimens. J Pak Med Assoc, 50, 174-7.
  75. Sunahara M, Ichimiya S, Nimura Y, et al (1998). Mutational analysis of the p73 gene localized at chromosome 1p36.3 in colorectal carcinomas. Int J Oncol, 13, 319-23.
  76. Suzuki J, Chen YY, Scott GK, et al (2009). Protein acetylation and histone deacetylase expression associated with malignant breast cancer progression. Clin Cancer Res, 15, 3163-71. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-08-2319
  77. Taneri F, Kurukahvecioglu O, Akyurek N, et al (2006). Microanatomy of milk ducts in the nipple. Eur Surg Res, 38, 545-9. https://doi.org/10.1159/000096775
  78. Tfayli A, Temraz S, Abou Mrad R, et al (2010). Breast cancer in low- and middle-income countries: an emerging and challenging epidemic. J Oncol, 2010, 490631.
  79. Thorlacius S, Struewing JP, Hartge P, et al (1998). Populationbased study of risk of breast cancer in carriers of BRCA2 mutation. Lancet, 352, 1337-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)03300-5
  80. vom Saal FS, Nagel SC, Timms BG, et al (2005). Implications for human health of the extensive bisphenol A literature showing adverse effects at low doses: a response to attempts to mislead the public. Toxicol, 212, 244-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2005.05.006
  81. Vorbach C, Capecchi MR, Penninger JM (2006). Evolution of the mammary gland from the innate immune system? Bioessays, 28, 606-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.20423
  82. Wang H, Shao N, Ding QM, et al (1997). BRCA1 proteins are transported to the nucleus in the absence of serum and splice variants BRCA1a, BRCA1b are tyrosine phosphoproteins that associate with E2F, cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases. Oncogene, 15, 143-57. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1201252
  83. White E, Prives C (1999). DNA damage enables p73. Nature, 399, 734-7. https://doi.org/10.1038/21536
  84. Wooster R, Bignell G, Lancaster J, et al (1995). Identification of the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2. Nature, 378, 789-92. https://doi.org/10.1038/378789a0
  85. Wooster R, Neuhausen SL, Mangion J, et al (1994). Localization of a breast cancer susceptibility gene, BRCA2, to chromosome 13q12-13. Science, 265, 2088-90. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.8091231
  86. Xu J, Shetty PB, Feng W, et al (2012). Methylation of HIN-1, RASSF1A, RIL and CDH13 in breast cancer is associated with clinical characteristics, but only RASSF1A methylation is associated with outcome. BMC Cancer, 12, 243. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-12-243
  87. Yankaskas BC (2005). Epidemiology of breast cancer in young women. Breast Dis, 23, 3-8.
  88. Zheng W, Gustafson DR, Sinha R, et al (1998). Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst, 90, 1724-9. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/90.22.1724
  89. Zou JP, Hirose Y, Siddique H, et al (1999). Structure and expression of variant BRCA2a lacking the transactivation domain. Oncol Rep, 6, 437-40.