1. Introduction
The number of international students in Korea has increased to approximately 160,000 as of 2021, with Vietnamese students constituting the second-largest group (23.5%, 35,843 students) after Chinese students (Ministry of Education, 2021). However, the 27% increase in international student dropout rates in 2020 highlights significant adaptation challenges (Korean Council for University Education, 2021). Vietnamese students encounter linguistic barriers, cultural differences, and academic stress that necessitate effective psychological resources and adaptation strategies. These adaptation challenges reflect broader dynamics of competitive Asian business environments, where Korean universities operate as key institutions preparing students for regional business contexts, requiring strategic approaches that extend beyond traditional academic support services.
ITLO applies traditional leadership principles to personal self-influence processes. Andressen et al. (2012) demonstrated that transformational leadership experiences enhance individuals' self-regulation and self-motivation through mediating mechanisms of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. This conceptualization proves particularly relevant for international students navigating unfamiliar educational environments without direct leadership support. Kelloway et al. (2003) revealed that transformational leadership's influence becomes more pronounced in remote or non-face-to-face environments, suggesting applicability to international students' self-directed adaptation situations.
Vietnam and Korea share cultural similarities in collectivism and power distance dimensions but differ significantly in uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 2001). Huong et al. (2017) reported that Vietnamese students experience adaptation difficulties despite apparent cultural similarities, attributing this to internal tensions caused by Korea's stronger normativity, competitiveness, and uncertainty avoidance tendencies.
From a business environment adaptation perspective, understanding the psychological mechanisms mechanisms that facilitate Vietnamese students' adaptation proves crucial for developing effective international student support programs. While Korean universities have established various administrative support systems for international students, these predominantly focus on practical and academic assistance rather than psychological resource development. This study addresses this gap by examining how educational managers can leverage ITLO concepts to enhance Vietnamese students' adaptation experiences.
This study investigates how Vietnamese students' ITLO influences Korean language adaptation and university adjustment through resilience and self-efficacy. The research addresses literature gaps by: (1) applying ITLO in cross-cultural adaptation contexts, (2) investigating the mediating mechanisms of psychological resources, and (3) analyzing these relationships within the specific cultural dynamics between Vietnam and Korea.
The specific research objectives encompass: first, analyzing how ITLO influences psychological resources (resilience and self-efficacy); second, examining the effects of these psychological resources on Korean language adaptation and university adjustment; third, investigating the direct and indirect effects of ITLO on adaptation outcomes; and fourth, providing practical educational management implications for supporting Vietnamese students based on these findings. These objectives align with the growing need for evidence-based educational management approaches in Asian higher education institutions.
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1. ITLO and Psychological Resources
ITLO adapts Bass and Riggio's (2006) four elements (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration) to self-directed contexts, where individuals inspire and transform themselves rather than relying on external leadership. Andressen et al. (2012) confirmed that transformational leadership enhances performance through mediating mechanisms of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, suggesting that individuals can apply transformational leadership principles to themselves. Unlike traditional self-leadership that primarily focuses on behavioral strategies, the transformational approach emphasizes deeper cognitive and affective self-influence processes.
For Vietnamese students, who come from a culture that values collective harmony and relationship-based interactions, ITLO provides a framework for maintaining cultural identity while developing individual agency in new educational contexts. Houghton and Yoho (2005) noted that self-leadership effectiveness varies by context, with complex and challenging situations particularly benefiting from transformational approaches.
Resilience, defined as the ability to bounce back from adversity (Smith et al., 2008), and self-efficacy, an individual's belief in their capacity to perform necessary behaviors (Bandura, 1997), represent critical psychological resources for international students. Previous research has established that transformational approaches enhance resilience and self-efficacy (Ninković & Florić, 2018; Salanova et al., 2011), and these resources positively influence adaptation outcomes (Wang et al., 2018).
For Vietnamese students in Korea, these psychological resources may prove particularly important given the linguistic gap between Vietnamese and Korean languages and differences in academic expectations. ITLO may enhance resilience and self-efficacy, which in turn support language acquisition and university adjustment.
2.2. Cultural Context and Adaptation Process
Vietnam and Korea share collectivist orientations and hierarchical social structures, but differ significantly in uncertainty avoidance and competitive orientations. Korea's educational system emphasizes structured learning environments, clear performance metrics, and competitive achievement—characteristics that align with its higher uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 2001; Huong et al., 2017). Vietnamese students, accustomed to more flexible approaches and relationship-based learning contexts, often experience unexpected challenges despite anticipating easy cultural adaptation.
From an educational management perspective, understanding these cultural dynamics proves essential for developing appropriate support strategies. Korean universities' educational management approaches typically emphasize structured administrative systems that align with Korea's higher uncertainty avoidance tendencies. However, these approaches may not adequately address the needs of Vietnamese students accustomed to more relationship-based educational environments. Effective educational management for Vietnamese students requires balancing structural support with psychological resource development.
These cultural differences create a unique adaptation context for Vietnamese students. While surface-level cultural similarities facilitate initial transition, deeper differences in educational expectations and communication patterns create unanticipated stressors. These cultural nuances influence how ITLO manifests and impacts adaptation outcomes.
Language adaptation represents a critical challenge for international students, significantly affecting academic achievement and social integration (Zhang & Goodson, 2011). University adjustment encompasses academic, social, and psychological dimensions (Baker & Siryk, 1989). For Vietnamese students, Korean language proficiency strongly predicts overall university adjustment (Kim, 2018).
Given these theoretical foundations, we propose that ITLO positively influences resilience and self-efficacy, which in turn facilitate Korean language adaptation and university adjustment. Additionally, we expect Korean language adaptation to positively affect university adjustment, and psychological resources to mediate the relationship between ITLO and adaptation outcomes.
Based on the theoretical framework discussed above, we developed a research model that illustrates the proposed relationships between ITLO, psychological resources, and adaptation outcomes. Figure 1 presents this model, showing both direct paths and mediating mechanisms through which ITLO is expected to influence Vietnamese students' adaptation.
Figure 1 : Research Model
3. Research Methods
3.1. Participants and Data Collection
This study targeted Vietnamese students enrolled in seven universities in Seoul. Selection criteria included: (1) holding a student visa, (2) current enrollment in a Seoul-based university, and (3) minimum one-year residence in Korea. Data collection occurred from September to November 2024 face-to-face surveys administered in both Vietnamese and Korean languages.
The face-to-face data collection approach proved essential given Vietnamese students' cultural preferences for relationship-based interactions and contextual communication. As noted by Huong et al. (2017), Vietnamese students typically engage more authentically when personal rapport is established, making in-person surveys more effective than online methods. Trained bilingual research assistants conducted the surveys, providing immediate clarification when needed and establishing the trust necessary for obtaining candid responses—particularly important when discussing psychological constructs that may be conceptualized differently across cultures.
From 320 distributed questionnaires, 288 valid responses were used for analysis (collection rate 94.4%, valid response rate 90%). This high response rate, atypical for survey research, reflects the effectiveness of the face-to-face approach with Vietnamese participants. The sample consisted of 43.8% male and 56.2% female students, predominantly in the 20-25 age range (56.3%), with most being undergraduates (68.4%) demonstrating intermediate Korean language proficiency (TOPIK levels 3-4, 47.9%).
3.2. Measures
All measures used a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree). Table 1 summarizes the measurement instruments.
Table 1: Measurement Instruments
*Note: CR = Composite Reliability, AVE = Average Variance Extracted
*Single-item measure; Cronbach's α, CR, and AVE are not applicable. The use of a single-item measure is justified based on Gardner et al. (1998) and Wanous et al. (1997), who suggest that well-designed global single-item measures can demonstrate adequate validity for comprehensive constructs.
ITLO was measured using a modified version of Bass and Avolio's (2004) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, adapted to the self-leadership context. Resilience was assessed using Smith et al.'s (2008) Brief Resilience Scale, and self-efficacy was measured with Sherer et al.'s (1982) General Self-Efficacy Scale. Korean language adaptation and university adjustment were measured using items adapted from Baker and Siryk's (1989) Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire.
University adjustment was measured using a single item. Although multi-item scales are generally preferred, Gardner et al. (1998) and Wanous et al. (1997) demonstrated that well-designed single items for measuring global constructs can achieve similar predictive validity. For this study, we measured university adjustment holistically using the item "I am generally well-adjusted to university life." The validity of this single item was verified through correlation analysis with established multi-item university adjustment subscales (academic, social, emotional, and institutional adaptation), showing strong correlations (r > 0.70) and a high correlation with the overall multi-item scale (r = 0.85).
3.3. Data Analysis
Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed using the Python-based PLSPy. This approach was selected over traditional R-based packages for several methodological advantages: (1) enhanced computational efficiency for iterative bootstrap procedures with large sample sizes, (2) superior integration with machine learning libraries for advanced validation techniques, (3) improved data preprocessing capabilities for handling missing values and outliers, and (4) more flexible visualization options for complex structural models (Hair et al., 2017).
The Python-based approach provides several advantages for international education research contexts. PLSPy offers enhanced support for multilingual data processing, which proved particularly relevant given our bilingual survey administration. Additionally, Python's extensive statistical ecosystem allowed for more sophisticated validation procedures, including cross-validation techniques and advanced bootstrap sampling methods that strengthen the reliability of mediation analysis results.
For single-item scales (University Adjustment), PLS-SEM allows their inclusion following Hair et al.'s (2017) guidelines. However, since traditional reliability and validity indicators such as Cronbach's α, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) cannot be calculated for single-item scales, we verified measurement quality through correlation analysis with related variables and predictive validity assessment as alternatives.
Analysis followed a two-stage approach: first evaluating the measurement model (reliability and validity), then assessing the structural model (path coefficients, R², predictive relevance). For mediation analysis, bootstrapping with 1,000 repetitions determined the significance of indirect effects, and VAF (Variance Accounted For) values classified mediation types (Hair et al., 2017): full mediation (VAF>0.8), partial mediation (0.2<VAF<0.8), or no mediation (VAF<0.2).
The analytical framework consisted of data preprocessing, measurement model evaluation, structural model assessment, and mediation analysis using advanced bootstrapping techniques. Detailed Python code implementation is provided in Appendix A.
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Model
Table 2 presents descriptive statistics and correlations among variables. All correlations were statistically significant (p<.01), with ITLO showing strong relationships with resilience (r=.554) and self-efficacy (r=.472).
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics and Correlations
Note: ** p < .01p
The measurement model demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity. All constructs showed Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability values above 0.7, except for the single-item university adjustment measure. Standardized factor loadings exceeded 0.7, and average variance extracted (AVE) values were greater than 0.5, confirming convergent validity. Discriminant validity was confirmed using the Fornell-Larcker criterion, with the square root of each construct's AVE exceeding its correlations with other constructs.
4.2. Hypothesis Testing
Table 3 summarizes the direct and indirect effects in the structural model.
Table 3: Direct, Indirect Effects and Hypothesis
*Note: ITLO=Individual Transformational Leadership Orientation; RES=Resilience; SE=Self-Efficacy; KLA=Korean Language Adaptation; UA=University Adjustment
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001
Although VAF values (0.2 < VAF < 0.8) indicate partial mediation according to conventional criteria, the lack of statistical significance for direct effects (p > .05) supports substantive full mediation interpretation following Hair et al. (2017).
ITLO significantly enhanced resilience (β=.554, p<.001) and self-efficacy (β=.472, p<.001), supporting H1 and H2. However, it showed no significant direct effect on Korean language adaptation (β=0.087, p=.157) or university adjustment (β=0.102, p=.078), rejecting H3 and H4.
Both resilience and self-efficacy positively influenced Korean language adaptation (β=0.255, p<.001; β=0.334, p<.001) and university adjustment (β=0.209, p<.001; β=0.252, p<.001), supporting H5-H8. Korean language adaptation significantly predicted university adjustment (β=0.312, p<.001), supporting H9.
For mediation analysis, VAF (Variance Accounted For) values were calculated as shown in Table 3. The analysis revealed that ITLO → RES → KLA showed a VAF value of 0.618, and ITLO → SE → KLA showed a VAF value of 0.645. While these values fall within the partial mediation range (0.2 < VAF < 0.8), the non-significant direct effects (ITLO → KLA, β=0.087, p=.157) suggest substantive full mediation. Following Hair et al. (2017), a non-significant direct effect combined with a significant indirect effect constitutes substantive full mediation. Therefore, resilience and self-efficacy substantively fully mediate the relationship between ITLO and Korean language adaptation, supporting H10 and H11.
For university adjustment, ITLO showed non-significant direct effects (β=0.102, p=.078). While psychological resources (resilience and self-efficacy) demonstrated VAF values of 0.532 and 0.538 respectively, which conventionally suggest partial mediation, the non-significant direct effects support substantive full mediation interpretation following Hair et al. (2017). Therefore, resilience and self-efficacy substantively fully mediate the relationship between ITLO and university adjustment, supporting H12 and H13.
Korean language adaptation partially mediated the relationship between ITLO and university adjustment (VAF=0.209). However, the sequential mediation paths through resilience → Korean language adaptation (β=0.044, p<.01) and self-efficacy → Korean language adaptation (β=0.049, p<.001) were significant, supporting H15 and H16.
The coefficient of determination (R²) values showed that the model explained 30.7% of variance in resilience, 22.3% in self-efficacy, 31.1% in Korean language adaptation, and 41.5% in university adjustment, indicating medium to high explanatory power.
5. Discussion and Conclusion
5.1. Key Findings and Interpretations
This study examined how ITLO influences Vietnamese students' adaptation to Korean universities through psychological resources, with particular attention to Business Environment Adaptation Implications. Four key findings emerged:
First, ITLO strongly enhanced resilience and self-efficacy but demonstrated no direct effect on adaptation outcomes. This suggests that ITLO primarily operates through psychological resources rather than directly influencing adaptation. The absence of direct effects reflects the significant linguistic and cultural barriers that require psychological mediation rather than being directly addressed through leadership qualities alone.
Second, resilience and self-efficacy substantively fully mediated the relationship between ITLO and Korean language adaptation, while also substantively fully mediating its relationship with university adjustment. This differential mediation pattern highlights the domain-specific nature of adaptation processes. Language acquisition, being highly dependent on psychological factors like persistence and belief in one's abilities, requires complete psychological mediation. The broader university adjustment process, which includes institutional and social components beyond individual psychology, allows for some direct leadership influence alongside psychological resource pathways.
Third, self-efficacy demonstrated stronger effects than resilience on both adaptation outcomes (31% stronger for language adaptation, 21% stronger for university adjustment). This asymmetry likely reflects Vietnam's educational culture, which emphasizes individual achievement within collective contexts (Huong et al., 2017), making belief in personal capabilities more critical than recovery capacity when navigating Korea's highly competitive academic environment. Additionally, language acquisition inherently depends on self-belief in communicative competence (Zimmerman, 2000), further explaining self-efficacy's dominant role in the adaptation process.
Fourth, the cultural context provides important interpretive insights. The ineffectiveness of direct leadership influence can be explained through Hofstede's (2001) cultural dimensions theory, particularly the differences in uncertainty avoidance between Korea and Vietnam that create unexpected adaptation difficulties for Vietnamese international students. Vietnam-Korea cultural similarities create expectations of easy adaptation, while underlying differences in uncertainty avoidance and competitive orientation create unexpected challenges requiring psychological resource mediation.
5.2. Theoretical and Practical Implications Educational Management Implications
For Korean universities and international education administrators, this study yields four critical educational management implications. First, university administrators should integrate ITLO training into their international student management frameworks. Orientation programs for Vietnamese students should incorporate face-to-face transformational leadership development, respecting their cultural preference for relationship-based learning. Universities could implement small-group workshops (8-10 students) led by peer mentors who have successfully adapted, focusing on both structured reflection activities and informal social interaction. This approach requires minimal administrative restructuring while potentially yielding significant improvements in student adaptation outcomes.
Second, international education managers should prioritize psychological resource development programs alongside traditional academic support services. Universities could establish dedicated psychological support initiatives that emphasize face-to-face self-efficacy enhancement. Weekly small-group "Achievement Sharing Circles" (6-8 students) facilitated by senior Vietnamese peers could be implemented as part of regular student support programs, leveraging collective encouragement while building individual confidence with minimal resource requirements.
Third, language education administrators should adopt integrated approaches that address both linguistic and psychological dimensions of language acquisition. Korean language programs should incorporate psychological resource development alongside linguistic instruction, with language instructors trained to recognize and reinforce students' incremental achievements. This integrated approach represents a more efficient educational management strategy than separate language and psychological support programs.
Fourth, international affairs offices should develop targeted orientation materials that explicitly address cultural differences between Vietnamese and Korean educational contexts. Pre-departure orientations conducted in Vietnam should specifically discuss differences in uncertainty avoidance and competitive orientations between educational systems. Universities could develop culture-specific orientation guides that highlight less visible academic and social expectations, improving educational management efficiency by preventing adaptation problems before they occur.
5.3. Limitations and Future Research
This study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference. Longitudinal research tracking psychological resource and adaptation changes over time would strengthen conclusions about causal relationships. Second, the sample was limited to Vietnamese students in Seoul universities, potentially limiting generalizability to other regions and student populations. Third, while face-to-face data collection enhanced response validity through cultural appropriateness, it may have introduced social desirability bias inherent in direct interviewer-respondent interactions. Fourth, the single-item measure for university adjustment, while validated through additional analysis, may not capture the full complexity of adaptation experiences. The multidimensional nature of university adjustment, encompassing academic, social, emotional, and institutional adaptation aspects, requires more sophisticated multi-item scales in future research.
Future research should explore several directions: (1) comparing ITLO effects across different international student populations to identify culture-specific mechanisms; (2) examining how ITLO development changes over time during the adaptation process; (3) investigating how specific educational management interventions might enhance psychological resources; and (4) exploring how digital and remote learning contexts affect the relationship between ITLO and adaptation outcomes for students with strong preferences for in-person interaction.
Despite these limitations, this study provides valuable insights into how ITLO influences Vietnamese students' adaptation to Korean universities through psychological resources. By enhancing our understanding of these relationships, we can develop more effective strategies for supporting international students' cross-cultural adaptation and academic success.
Artificial Intelligence Disclosure
Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process
While preparing this work, the author used Grammarly software to edit the manuscript. After using this tool/service, the author reviewed and edited the content as needed and took full responsibility for the content of the published article.
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